Disorder/Order – Scattered/Arranged – Unorganized/Organized – Not seeing/Seeing – Unseen/Seen – Shade/Light – Closed/Open – Shell/Space. These opposing concepts were central to the design challenges faced by the Sarv administrative building project. Initially referred to the design team in June 2017 for façade approval, the building posed unique architectural problems. It was a partially constructed structure with 100% plot coverage, limiting the potential for natural light and ventilation to just one side—the southern façade. This constraint heavily influenced the design team’s approach, as they sought to balance functional requirements with aesthetic and spatial considerations.
Given the building’s initial form, it became clear that the façade needed more depth. A simple, flat surface would not suffice. Instead, the façade had to evolve from a mere protective “shell” into an intermediate space that not only framed the building but actively engaged with its surroundings. The southern side presented a complex challenge: it needed to be semi-open, allowing natural light to penetrate deep into the interior while shielding the space from harsh, direct sunlight. Moreover, it had to strike a balance between openness and privacy—transparent enough to connect the building with the outside world, yet closed enough to provide a sense of enclosure and security. This duality was key: a space that could “see” the outside but remain “unseen” from within, creating a dynamic interaction between the interior and exterior.
To achieve this, the boundary between the building and the city was defined by two distinct layers. The first, closer to the interior, consisted of large, transparent windows that allowed natural light to flood the space, enhancing visibility and openness. The second, external layer was semi-transparent, composed of wooden railings and steel planters, forming a permeable screen. This outer layer acted as a filter, regulating light and airflow while providing a sense of privacy for the occupants. The space between these two layers became an active zone—partially open, serving both functional and aesthetic purposes, and softening the transition between the building and its urban environment.
This design language was extended to the rooftop, continuing the concept of layered transparency and semi-transparency. The rooftop was not merely a functional space but an integral part of the building’s interaction with the city, offering views, light, and air while maintaining a degree of seclusion.
The careful organization of the façade and rooftop extended into the building’s interior design. The arrangement of service zones, common areas, and mechanical and electrical systems followed the same principles of layering, openness, and controlled interaction with the environment. Each element was deliberately integrated to create a cohesive whole—an architectural response that balanced contrasts and reconciled opposing forces within a unified design.
In collaboration with to.org, Counterspace, led by Sumayya Vally, has revealed its latest project, “Regenerate Kakuma,” aimed at promoting holistic well-being in one of the world’s largest refugee settlements in Kakuma, Kenya. This regenerative wellness and fitness hub blends fitness, agriculture, and cultural spaces for over 285,000 refugees. The settlement, known as one of the largest globally, primarily hosts individuals from 19 countries, including South Sudan and Somalia.
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The project is inspired by the unique cultural tapestry of Kakuma’s diverse inhabitants. The settlement, whose name comes from the Swahili word for “nowhere,” has long been a symbol of resilience and survival amidst harsh conditions. Refugee populations are often at high risk for developing mental health conditions, with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affecting up to 47% of those displaced by conflict. Regenerate Kakuma aims to mitigate these effects by providing a space that nurtures creativity, movement, and emotional healing, helping residents cope with their traumatic experiences.
Kampala Kasubi Tombs. Image Courtesy of Creative Commons
At the heart of the design is a focus on combining cultural heritage with natural materials, ensuring the project respects the community’s identity while creating functional spaces for growth and interaction. Vally’s design draws on sacred and vernacular architecture from the regions where Kakuma’s people originated, including the rock-cut churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia and the Neolithic rock paintings of Laas Geel in Somaliland. These references are woven into the structure, creating a space that feels connected to the cultural roots of its inhabitants.
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The architectural concept integrates natural elements and local materials, with the building being constructed primarily from Turkana stone, known for its thermal properties that help regulate indoor temperatures. The building’s form is a stepped stone structure, featuring thick walls that rise in a gradient, allowing for natural light, ventilation, and movement throughout the space. The design emphasizes harmony with the surrounding landscape, ensuring the center is both visually striking and practical for the environment.
Courtyards and openings punctuate the building, providing areas for reflection and interaction, while a stepped roofline creates distinct functional zones, from meditation spaces to outdoor fitness areas. These design elements are intended to foster both individual well-being and social cohesion, offering spaces for calm reflection as well as physical activity.
The Regenerate Kakuma facility will house a gym and outdoor fitness spaces, vital for supporting the athletic talent emerging from the settlement. Kakuma has produced several international athletes, including middle-distance runner Perina Nakang and Dominic Lobalu, who competed in the 2024 Paris Olympics. The fitness center will offer a fully equipped gym and outdoor sports areas, including a basketball court, to nurture future talent and promote physical health.
Courtesy of Counterspace
In addition to fitness facilities, the project emphasizes mental well-being through a meditation hall and outdoor reflection spaces. These areas are designed to promote mindfulness and emotional recovery, key to addressing the trauma many refugees experience. Open courtyards allow for community gatherings, adding a social element to the peaceful environment.
A key component of the project is sustainability. In response to environmental degradation caused by climate change, the facility will include agroforestry and market gardens. These green spaces not only provide fresh produce but also serve as a form of education, teaching residents sustainable agriculture practices that help combat flooding, soil erosion, and pest issues.
Facade of Bet Abba Libanos Rock-Hewn Church. Image Courtesy of Creative Commons
Architects and urban planners have long played a crucial role in addressing humanitarian disasters, designing spaces that not only provide immediate relief but also foster long-term resilience and community rebuilding. In other similar news, Shigeru Ban Architects, in collaboration with Voluntary Architects’ Network, recently developed an improved version of the temporary housing developed to help those affected by the recent Turkey-Syria earthquake. Similarly, following the extreme floods that affected Pakistan in 2022, architect Yasmeen Lari the Heritage Foundation of Pakistan pledged to help build one million resilient houses in the country. Finally, The Türkiye Design Council (TDC) has gathered 13 design practices, including Foster + Partners and Bjarke Ingels Group, to contribute to the revitalization of the historic province of Hatay, an area severely damaged by the 7.8 magnitude earthquake in February this year.
How do societies support and nurture emerging architects? Young architects are heavily influenced by their formal education and initial exposure to the industry. Various organizational systems across regions, whether passive through environmental factors or active via tangible benefits, are in place to assist them in entering the field. However, it’s worth questioning how often we reflect on these established support systems. Are they effective in fostering well-rounded professionals, or do they unintentionally reinforce certain biases in how architecture is practiced?
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Architects typically undergo rigorous education and training that can take up to a decade or more before being licensed. Architectural education, often steeped in theoretical and conceptual explorations, is frequently criticized for disconnecting from the practical realities of design and construction. Nonetheless, this academic foundation remains crucial, offering insight into architectural history, theory, and broader design considerations. While these concepts may not always be immediately applicable during an architect’s early career, they help shape an architect’s ability to think critically and holistically about the built environment—skills that often come into play later in their career when serving their clients.
Different regions offer unique support forms shaped by market demands and local architectural cultures to bridge the gap between academia and professional practice. While aiding young architects in building their early careers, these systems may also create limitations, encouraging specific paths while discouraging others. This raises an easily overlooked question: how easily can a young architect forge their path if their vision diverges from the established norms? By exploring the systems in place in regions like the U.S. and China-Hong Kong, we can reflect on how we might reshape these structures to inspire young architects who aim to create meaningful design change for the common good, emphasizing social responsibility over simply fulfilling professional duties.
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Opportunities and Uncertainty: The Open-Ended U.S. Architectural Scene
In the U.S., architectural education is among the longest globally, with bachelor and master programs at top universities often taking 7-8 years to complete together. This extended pathway provides some versatility, equipping graduates with skill sets that may give them some leads in various sectors within and adjacent to architecture. One of the critical forms of support the U.S. system offers is its passive economic environment – the diversity of job opportunities across the larger creative industries. This feature sets it apart from other regions. With the right motivation and networking, young architects often branch into UI/UX design, product design, digital rendering, animation, creative consulting, and more.
Even within the architecture profession, there is a broad range of opportunities, from exhibition design and construction management to specialized roles in facade design, lighting, and in-house branded store design. For more typical architectural designers, the diversity of office types is equally varied, with options including corporate firms, boutique studios, academia-integrated practices, and design-build companies. These firms may emphasize different stages of the architectural process—some focus on early design phases, others on acting as the Architect of Record, and some provide full-service solutions from concept to construction. This is all part of the benefit of having a diverse building type available as architectural projects in the U.S.
Most U.S. architecture firms offer various support for licensure, including study resources, examination fee reimbursements, and study groups that facilitate a fluid, organic support system for examinations. While the system encourages young architects to get licensed, the pressure is relatively mild, as licensure may not significantly impact one’s career trajectory, depending on the type of practice. Studying for licensure, nonetheless, provides a valuable overview of the broader building industry.
The U.S.’s diverse architectural project types offer opportunities for small-scale projects such as single-family homes, small independent galleries, or canopy structures. This economic structure is passive support for young architects working to become independent practitioners, allowing them to take on smaller commissions and gradually build a portfolio and client base through networking. The open-endedness also pressures young architects to navigate their routes. Confronted early in their careers by questions of social responsibility, clients’ interest, and design competence, young architects are left on their own as to whether their design may or may not benefit the common good or simply for business survival, to serve their clients only.
Therefore, the open-ended nature of the U.S. system is a double-edged sword, as it can also be overwhelming for those who need a clear career strategy. With so many paths available, it is easy to feel uncertain about which direction to pursue and how to navigate their career. The flexibility and diverse career choices also hamper any highly regulated training that provides specific tool sets for young architects to maintain a high standard of professionalism, practice, and execution. Due to the flexibility, building standards vary greatly depending on locality and the type of offices executing the work. Specifically, at times of economic downturn and job opportunities shrinking, not having a clear route for young and recent architectural graduates may also cause them to feel unnecessarily anxious in fear of being jobless and not well-protected by the architectural profession.
Structured Careers in Hong Kong: Regulated Paths for Emerging Architects
The architecture profession in China and Hong Kong offers a stark contrast due to the localized nature of practice and the distinct regulatory environments. In Hong Kong, independent architects rarely practice across borders with mainland China because of differing licensure requirements and significant income and cost of living variations. Although Hong Kong and mainland China share geographic proximity, young architects’ career outlooks and support systems differ.
In Hong Kong, the number of architecture graduates from accredited universities is regulated to protect the interests of the industry and the students who graduate from this profession. As such, many of these graduates typically follow one of two career paths: joining large local architectural firms focusing on construction documents and administration or entering government roles such as working for the Architectural Services Department (ArchSD), which oversees the design and construction of most public buildings. Unlike the open-ended, free-market system in the U.S., Hong Kong graduates are provided with a more structured path that offers better support and protection to young architects as a profession and creates a tightly-knit community. It is not unheard of for the entire graduating cohort to share industry information and try to negotiate for better compensation with local corporations.
However, due to the structured, systemic bias, they face a more limited set of choices as the economic environment does not include various small opportunities within the creative industries. While job options and outlook may be limited, the compensation and benefits for young architects in corporate offices are higher than in neighboring regions. This system encourages strong professionalism and a prescribed path: education, practice, licensure as an architect, and eventually becoming an Authorized Person (AP), the final licensure required to sign off on construction drawings officially. The rigorous licensure process in Hong Kong ensures a high level of expertise in local construction practices, resulting in trained architects who can build high-quality and complex structures. Still, this focus on regulations and site knowledge can also hurt the time spent on creative design exploration that may produce fruitful or unexpected resolutions for the common good. Because everything is highly regulated, communal-inspired interventions on a small scale are rare.
The distinction between design architects and architects of record (AOR) is even more pronounced in Hong Kong than in the U.S. Licensed individuals, due to the scarcity of their specialized knowledge and the limited number of licensure exam attempts allowed, often receive higher compensation for their regulatory expertise than for their design abilities. The relatively lucrative nature of the (AOR) further motivates and encourages young architects to pursue the profession at the cost of having fewer designers looking for creative ways to shape our society.
While ensuring high professional standards, this system limits the flexibility of the architectural profession in Hong Kong. It can quickly create an unconsciously biased environment towards overlooking important communal and public issues. Young architects, though well-supported professionally and motivated and eager to get licensed by tangible benefits such as significant income raises, often find themselves pigeonholed into predefined career paths, making it a less conducive environment for those interested in creative exploration, non-traditional practices or spatially design for communal or public issues.
Reflections on Emerging Architects’ Support Systems
When examining the systems for supporting young architects in the U.S. and China-Hong Kong, it’s essential to consider other models, such as those in the U.K. and parts of the E.U. The U.K. offers a more balanced approach, providing a structured career path alongside some flexibility, though often at the expense of lower compensation due to the market’s unique dynamics. Meanwhile, many public works projects in parts of the E.U. are open to competition, regardless of scale. This creates opportunities for young architects to gain experience and potentially secure their first commissions, even launching their careers internationally.
While reflecting on the concept of the common good, it is crucial to recognize that while support systems are often designed to advance the profession, they can inadvertently favor certain interest groups or overlook broader social responsibilities. How can we build a support system for young architects that fosters their growth, protects their interests, encourages socially responsible practices, and upholds the profession’s commitment to serving clients effectively? The challenge lies in crafting initiatives that balance these goals without introducing organizational biases or becoming dependent on specific funding sources.
Additionally, even in environments with a highly deregulated market and diverse creative opportunities, young architects may need help navigating the profession’s complexities. How do we ensure that the system provides guidance and structure without stifling creativity or limiting access while offering enough direction to prevent young architects from becoming overwhelmed and disillusioned?
This article is part of the ArchDaily Topics: Designing for the Common Good. Every month we explore a topic in-depth through articles, interviews, news, and architecture projects. We invite you to learn more about our ArchDaily Topics. And, as always, at ArchDaily we welcome the contributions of our readers; if you want to submit an article or project, contact us.
The Second Studio (formerly The Midnight Charette) is an explicit podcast about design, architecture, and the everyday. Hosted by Architects David Lee and Marina Bourderonnet, it features different creative professionals in unscripted conversations that allow for thoughtful takes and personal discussions.
A variety of subjects are covered with honesty and humor: some episodes are interviews, while others are tips for fellow designers, reviews of buildings and other projects, or casual explorations of everyday life and design. The Second Studio is also available on iTunes, Spotify, and YouTube.
This week David and Marina of FAME Architecture & Design discuss the Design-Build model of home construction. They cover the definition of the Design-Build model; lack of licensed architects in Design-Build companies; efficiency and economy; quality of construction; how costs are lowered; lack of transparency; who should / shouldn’t engage with Design-Build companies; and more.
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Highlights & Timestamps
(00:00) What is Design-Build?
(02:11) Design-Build companies with no licensed architects.
(09:44) False efficiency in Design-Build companies.
Why do clients decide to go with the design-build route? They did it for efficiency in time and process, and they think it’s cheaper to work with one company. But if the design-build team is not suitable for the client, they will have to hire a separate architect or designer to jump in and fix the project, costing the client a lot more money. And, pairing a design-build company with an architect, means the design-build company has to work in a way that that’s not their business model. (09:56)
(19:50) Issue with accountability in Design-Build companies.
When clients visit the site during construction, they can’t tell if things are right or wrong. So even though sometimes the architect-contractor relationship can have some friction, that check and balance system is very productive because there’s oversight on both sides of the architect and the contractor. When the contractor and architect are separate entities, all of the problems are discussed. For example, the contractor wouldn’t just make an assumption about the drawing, because they know the architect will show up on site next week and question it. (21:22)
(25:02) Generalist vs specialist in design and construction.
Architects and contractors are fundamentally very different professions with different sets of expertise. Each of them is an art form on their own. You can only really be an expert in architecture and design if you spend 100% or most of your time practicing architecture and design. It’s a craft. It’s an art. You can’t spend 50% of your time doing contractor stuff if you want to be a great architect. The same thing for a contractor. These are complicated professions [and] there’s a limit to the ability of one person being able to do both equally well. (25:38)
(29:30) High-end custom homes are not designed by Design-Build companies.
(33:54) How Design-Build companies cut costs.
Design-build companies are able to charge less because they’re cutting out design. A normal architect will take about 10% of the construction cost to perform full architectural services. Whereas design-build companies will do the architectural design for 10x cheaper…You don’t just remove phases and remove things from the design process and expect the same outcome. All these phases, checkpoints, and deliverables have specifications, renderings, floor plans, elevations, sections, etc. and they exist for a reason. The profession has evolved to have these things that are an important part of the design process and communication. (34:15)
(38:33) Lack of transparency in the Design-Build model.
(49:56) Preconstruction service benefits in architecture and GC model.
(53:58) The Design-Build model often doesn’t produce good outcomes.
(55:21) What type of client should engage with Design-Build companies?
Stress is something that a lot of clients underestimate. They think, “I can tough it out, or I’ve been through several stressful things before. I have a very stressful job; I know what it means to project manage…” Design and construction tend to have a higher level of stress than people realize and you’re doing that on top of your normal job. Often when people get through projects and it is stressful, if you ask them, “Would you have paid another 10% to 15% more of the total project cost to not have all the problems you had?” Most of the time they will say, “I would have gladly done that. It wasn’t worth the gray hairs.” (58:30)
(59:53) The Design-Build model is not inherently bad.
Check out The Second Studio Podcast’s previous editions.
Polycarbonate, commonly used in roofing and industrial cladding, has gone beyond its initial applications to become a material widely used across various architectural typologies. Its combination of strength, lightness, easy installation, and ability to allow natural light to pass through has made it an attractive option for residential, educational, and even cultural architecture projects. In homes, polycarbonate not only helps create bright and comfortable environments but also allows for creative use of translucency to generate private spaces without sacrificing visual connection to the outdoors.
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More and more architects are exploring the potential of polycarbonate in other sectors, such as offices, sports centers, and even museums, where its ability to transform the spatial experience through light and transparency adds an expressive value to the design. Additionally, the use of polycarbonate maximizes natural light, improving indoor environmental quality and reducing the need for artificial lighting during the day. Its versatility in shapes and finishes makes it adaptable to innovative designs and sustainable projects, which aim to reduce energy consumption and promote thermal comfort.
We present a selection of 25 works that stand out for their innovative use of polycarbonate. This list includes homes, schools, offices, industrial buildings, and libraries that exemplify how this material has become a lasting architectural trend.
The Vernacular Architecture Evolution of Naya / ZSYZ Studio
North Facing View of The Sweepers by Wang Shugang at the O’Donnell Athenaeum Phase I Museum. Image Courtesy of O’Donnell Athenaeum
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The University of Texas at Dallas (UT Dallas) has reached two major milestones in its 12-acre cultural development, the Edith and Peter O’Donnell Jr. Athenaeum: the grand opening of the Crow Museum of Asian Art and the groundbreaking of a new performance hall and music building. Designed by architectural firm Morphosis, the Crow Museum of Asian Art serves as the centerpiece of the university’s commitment to expanding its cultural offerings and engaging both the campus and the surrounding North Texas community. Alongside the museum’s opening, UT Dallas also broke ground on a new performance hall and music building, set to be completed by fall 2026.
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Phase I of the O’Donnell Athenaeum is the newly opened Crow Museum of Asian Art, a dynamic facility showcasing a vast collection of Asian art from countries such as China, Japan, India, and Korea. In addition to displaying pieces from the original Crow Museum in downtown Dallas, the UT Dallas location will feature selections from the university’s growing Latin American art collection and works on loan from the Dallas Museum of Art. The museum also includes a conservation lab, the Brettell Reading Room, and seminar spaces, making it not only a gallery but also a hub for academic research and learning. The design of the building highlights openness, natural light, and a strong connection to the campus. In fact, Morphosis used large glass panels and sheltered outdoor areas to create an inviting space that draws in both museum visitors and those passing by.
O’Donnell Athenaeum Phase I Museum North Facing View, Grand Staircase and Lobby. Image Courtesy of O’Donnell Athenaeum
We designed the Crow Museum to foster interaction not only with the art but also with the environment and community. The building’s transparent layout connects the exhibits with the surrounding campus, encouraging spontaneous engagement with art. — Arne Emerson, Design Partner at Morphosis.
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As part of Phase II, UT Dallas has begun construction on a new performance hall and music building. This facility will house a 680-seat concert hall, rehearsal spaces, a recording studio, and classrooms. Designed in a vineyard-style configuration, the hall will allow audience members to sit on all sides of the stage, creating a more immersive musical experience. The music building will provide a comprehensive environment for both performance and learning, supporting the university’s Harry W. Bass Jr. School of Arts, Humanities, and Technology.
Phase II. Image Courtesy of Morphosis
The entire O’Donnell Athenaeum project is being developed in three phases. Future phases will include a museum for the traditional arts of the Americas, as well as a grand plaza designed to accommodate outdoor art exhibitions, performances, and student activities. Once complete, the cultural district aims to provide a comprehensive space for students, faculty, and the public to explore the intersection of art, education, and performance at UT Dallas. The original Crow Museum in downtown Dallas will remain open, continuing its mission to celebrate and promote Asian art, while the new UT Dallas location will allow for expanded exhibitions and academic programming.
Phase II. Image Courtesy of Morphosis
In other similar news, architect Jean Nouvel will reimagine a historic 1855 Haussmannian building at Place du Palais-Royal in Paris, as it becomes the new home of Fondation Cartier pour l’art contemporain, scheduled to open in 2025. Additionally, the team comprised of David Kohn Architects, noA Architecten, and Asli Çiçek has won the international competition for the redesign of SMAK, the Municipal Museum of Contemporary Art in Ghent, Belgium. Finally, Powerhouse, Australia’s largest museum institution dedicated to applied arts design, and technology, has revealed the plans for a comprehensive restoration of its three sites located in Sydney.
Interior V iew of the Brettell Reading Room. Image Courtesy of O’Donnell Athenaeum
Studio Gang’s Samuel H. Scripps Theater Center has officially broken ground in Garrison, New York. Designed as the new permanent home for Hudson Valley Shakespeare (HVS), this 14,850-square-foot venue marks a significant development for the theater company, which is known for its open-air productions. The facility will be the first purpose-built, LEED Platinum-certified theater in the U.S., reflecting a strong commitment to environmental sustainability. It is located on a 98-acre campus along the Hudson River, providing a natural setting that integrates architecture with the surrounding landscape.
Studio Gang’s design is intended to harmonize with the natural landscape. The theater will feature a timber-framed grid shell structure, with timber columns that rise from the ground, and it is strategically positioned to offer views of the Hudson River and nearby highlands. The design also uses natural materials to reflect the minerality of the region. Several pavilions—including a backstage area, concession building, and restrooms—are part of the complex, which aims to enhance both the theatrical experience and the connection between art and nature.
Courtesy of Studio Gang
The theater’s proscenium arch, carefully designed to frame views of the Hudson River and Storm King Mountain, plays a central role in connecting the performance space to its natural surroundings. The structure’s grid shell roof, supported by timber columns, draws inspiration from the Hudson Highlands, creating a fluid dialogue between the built and natural environments. Additionally, the modular design of the pavilions allows for future expansion and adaptability, enhancing the theater’s capacity to host a variety of events and accommodate evolving audience needs over time.
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Landscape architecture firm Nelson Byrd Woltz is restoring the former golf course site by reintroducing native grasses and wetlands. This rewilding project will increase biodiversity and reduce the use of resources. Visitors to the theater will walk through a series of unpaved paths, surrounded by natural meadows, before arriving at the hilltop venue. The landscape will also include picnic lawns and overlook points for pre- and post-performance activities. In addition, solar panels, natural ventilation, and low-carbon construction materials are being employed to minimize the environmental impact of the project.
Courtesy of Darcstudio
Hudson Valley Shakespeare’s new theater is designed to immerse audiences and actors in the rich landscape of the Hudson Valley. The architecture weaves in elements of the natural environment to create a unique indoor-outdoor setting for the company’s open-air productions and to offer an unparalleled theater experience. –Studio Gang Founding Partner Jeanne Gang.
Courtesy of Studio Gang
The Samuel H. Scripps Theater Center is expected to open in time for HVS’s 2026 season, transforming the company from a seasonal festival into a year-round cultural institution. By extending its performance season and providing a permanent home, the theater aims to draw audiences from across the region, contributing to the Hudson Valley’s growing reputation as a center for the performing arts.
In other similar news, Snøhetta has revealed the design of a new opera house to be added to the historic area of Diriyah in Saudi Arabia. Additionally, The International Architectural Design Competition for the Shenzhen Opera House has awarded first prize to Jean Nouvel’s proposal, Light of the Sea. Finally, 3XN has just won an international competition, which they were invited to participate in, to design the Chungnam Art Center in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea.
Two primary building approaches are commonly identified in architecture and design: solid versus hollow construction. These methods vary significantly across different cultures and regions, specifically for interior partitioning systems, when they appear interchangeable. Each has its own established practices influenced by local materials, labor preferences, climatic conditions, and cultural traditions. When architects and designers focus on their local context, it is easy to overlook the broader construction assumptions, limiting design flexibility and methodology. This raises an important question: How do these two building approaches differ?
Focusing mainly on interior systems, the distinctions between solid and hollow construction largely stem from the availability of materials and workforce preferences. For example, in the United States and Japan, stud walls, both wood and metal, are frequently used for partitioning. Conversely, brick remains the predominant material for partition walls in regions such as Hong Kong and southern China. Why do we build differently, and what are the benefits and challenges of each building methodology?
Solid construction focuses on volumetric building by starting with a standardized mass, removing material to create design variations, and incorporating utilities like electrical and plumbing systems. Rather than an additive process, the subtracted mass remains solid with little or no cavity space. This method is typically associated with materials such as concrete and brick. In contrast, hollow construction builds strength and thickness by adding and layering materials, such as wood or metal framing, and is then completed with more layers of finished materials. In this method, between studs create cavities for service lines, with insulation often added afterward to improve thermal and acoustic performance.
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Solid Construction: A Defense Against Mold and Pests
Solid construction, particularly with brick, is standard for partition walls in regions like Hong Kong and southern China. The minimal gaps and cavities in solid walls reduce the risk of condensation, which can lead to mold growth in humid climates. Solid construction also minimizes spaces where pests can inhabit—a vital factor in densely populated, warm regions. Locally, many Hong Kong homeowners prefer solid walls, believing they offer stability and authenticity. The cultural aversion to “hollowness,” which can be associated with inauthenticity or bad fortune, further drives the preference for solid materials throughout the years.
As solid walls are now an established and widely preferred method of building, particularly in residential environments, the building industry is exploring more efficient alternatives to traditional red bricks, which are strong but costly and labor-intensive. Alternative materials such as sand bricks, known for their moisture resistance, and gypsum-based solid bricks, prized for their lighter weight and ease of installation, have gained traction. These alternatives balance the solidity demanded by local expectations and the necessity of controlling costs and conserving space in densely populated urban areas. However, it’s crucial to consider that gypsum-based solid bricks are significantly less dense than red bricks. While they qualify as a ‘solid construction’ material, one must question the threshold at which their density becomes too low—so light and porous that they shall no longer be considered a ‘solid material.’
The Labor and Waste Challenges of Solid Construction
One of the main drawbacks of solid construction is the labor-intensive process required to integrate utilities such as electrical conduits and plumbing. Since these systems cannot be accommodated within wall cavities, which are non-existent in solid construction, they must be incorporated by physically removing material from the constructed solid walls. This subtractive process—drilling, sanding, and routing—generates significant waste and dust, posing health risks to workers and nearby residents. Additionally, this method is environmentally unsustainable and incurs high labor costs, highlighting the limitations of solid construction despite its cultural and practical advantages.
Tencent Shenzhen Headquarter Lot 04 East designed by Ma Yansong-MAD Architects.. Image Courtesy of MAD Architects
Another challenge is achieving perfectly straight walls. Brick walls, built layer by layer, often have human imperfections that cannot be corrected with rough plaster or paint. This limits design possibilities, particularly for details like shadow lines, baseboard reveals, and flush installations. These are nearly impossible to execute without adding a slight cavity and finishing material like a gypsum board. Even elements such as simple continuous baseboards and shelvings are challenging to install, as the human-error curvature of the walls can create noticeable gaps.
Solid construction may often create confusion on a renovation site and further complicate things. There is no easy way to identify any embedded conduit lines or plumbing lines behind and embedded within the solid walls, specifically when some conduits are made of plastics. While hollow construction allows for the complete reveal of systems once the finished wall surfaces are peeled off, solid constructions have no such benefits. This creates a lot of on-site errors and hesitancy towards removing/refurbishing particular walls or systems simply due to the difficulty of identifying their exact location without destroying them. This also makes the repair and maintenance job that much harder.
In commercial settings, where cultural preferences hold less sway and HVAC systems better control humidity and temperature throughout the day and night, hollow construction is beginning to widen its market share even in Hong Kong. As we further discuss, hollow construction offers a faster, more environmentally sustainable building process with greater flexibility for routing utilities and services. It is generally less affected by issues like pests.
Hollow Walls: A Flexible Approach to Modern Partitioning
In the U.S. and Japan, hollow construction is the norm for partition walls, typically employing timber or light-gauge metal studs. This method allows walls to be built quickly and offers significant flexibility for running utilities within the cavities. The space between studs can also be used for architectural elements like pocket doors, inset shelves, and structural elements, including brace frames.
Hollow Construction’s additive approach also provides a wide array of customization opportunities. Each layer is added on top, allowing for variability in wall construction even within the same project. This control over flatness makes it easier to specify reveals, flush finishes, and other design details. Additionally, the cavity dimensions, fire ratings, and sound transmission can be carefully specified, providing more precise outcomes than solid walls.
Stud walls also make repair and maintenance easier. While brick walls may be durable, their finish layers and corners are prone to chipping, and repairs involving utilities like water pipes require extensive labor to remove material. In contrast, hollow construction allows for easier reconfiguration of ducting and services, making it more practical for long-term maintenance.
The Trade-Off Between Flexibility and Complexity in Hollow Walls
While hollow construction offers great flexibility, it can sometimes lead to complications on site. The ability to customize wall types—whether for sound insulation, plumbing, or fire rating—can result in a complex array of configurations within a single project. This complexity often necessitates more extensive construction administration and increases the risk of errors in the field. By contrast, solid construction offers uniformity, with all walls built similarly, which can simplify the building process and reduce potential issues.
Another limitation of hollow construction is its limited location flexibility for mounting heavy fixtures, which requires careful pre-planning. Whereas brick walls provide a continuous surface for mounting, stud walls necessitate locating studs or adding intermediary supports during construction. Also, hollow walls generally have lower sound insulation than solid walls, even when supplemented with soundproofing materials. This can be especially problematic for partitions between residential units. Though staggered stud techniques can improve sound isolation, they come at an additional cost.
Hollow construction also tends to have a shorter lifespan. Even in less humid climates, stud walls, especially wood-made ones, deteriorate more quickly over time. Issues such as pests (e.g., termites or rodents) and fungus can further accelerate this degradation, raising concerns about long-term durability in some environments.
Durability vs. Adaptability: The Solid and Hollow Wall Debate
Solid construction undeniably offers durability and a sense of permanence, often favored for its robust performance over time. Yet, the high labor intensity, material waste, and difficulty of integrating modern utilities call into question its practicality for widespread use in all applications, especially in partition walls. While its longevity appeals to many homeowners, especially in regions where cultural values emphasize solid materials, the reality of frequent renovations raises doubts about the necessity of such enduring partitions. Hollow construction, by contrast, presents a flexible and cost-effective alternative, particularly in terms of ease of installation, maintenance, and adaptability to evolving spatial needs. As construction practices continue to evolve, the choice between solid and hollow systems reflects a broader tension between tradition and modern efficiency—highlighting the growing relevance of lightweight, adaptable methods in today’s design and construction landscapes.
The Second Studio (formerly The Midnight Charette) is an explicit podcast about design, architecture, and the everyday. Hosted by Architects David Lee and Marina Bourderonnet, it features different creative professionals in unscripted conversations that allow for thoughtful takes and personal discussions.
A variety of subjects are covered with honesty and humor: some episodes are interviews, while others are tips for fellow designers, reviews of buildings and other projects, or casual explorations of everyday life and design. The Second Studio is also available on iTunes, Spotify, and YouTube.
This week David and Marina of FAME Architecture & Design share their favorite aspects of being an architect. They discussed ongoing learning opportunities; building something from nothing; architecture comradery; construction; appreciation for man-made and natural objects; technical drawings; when architecture projects are finished; and more.
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The Second Studio Podcast: Architecture Pet Peeves
Highlights & Timestamps
(00:10) Favorites 1: Always Learning.
One of the things that [ex-architects] find themselves needing out of their next career, is something that will allow them to learn new things consistently. Not many professions offer the kind of excitement from problem-solving like architecture. This is also one of the painful aspects of being an architect. Not everyone’s built to enjoy problem-solving. Sometimes it is frustrating. It’s almost like a perverse love-hate relationship. (02:36)
(14:54) Favorites 2: Build something from nothing.
Architects get to create miniature universes. Each project is its own universe. It has its unique language and details. There’s a concept, a consistency in the design, aesthetics, or the language. The idea of architecture being a little world, which implies a level of detail and connectivity between all the parts and a sense of scale, is fascinating. [One of the best things is] when you’re fortunate to have a project and client that allows you to approach it as if you’re creating this new world, that’s hyper-exciting. (22:51)
(25:35) Favorites 3: Architecture comradery.
(30:28) Favorites 4: Construction.
There is something scary about construction sites. When you demolish a house, there is this feeling of, “Oh shit, there’s no going back.” But at the same time, there is a very optimistic feeling of excitement because it’s the birth of something new. It’s also a game of patience because you have to be extremely patient to see it through. It’s like a Christmas gift that takes you a year to unwrap. It’s this elongated stressful process that is also very satisfying. (30:59)
(44:14) Favorites 5: Appreciation for man-made and natural objects.
(47:45) Favorites 6: Technical Drawings.
There’s a limit to what an architect can do if they are not surrounded by good people. If I am trying to resolve a detail with the fabricator, and the fabricator is not good or trustworthy, I’m fighting with one arm tied behind my back. The fun part about architecture is when you find good peers and they’re just as stoked as you are to be working on a project. It is so exciting because they’re enthusiastic too. (58:10)
(59:14) When architecture projects are finished.
Architects need to step away from their project and finish it at some point. There’s a risk of architects getting too attached to their architecture, especially if it’s their house. It’s like living in your brain with a constantly evolving, never-ending project. I think there are dangers and toxicity to that. I [would like] to have someone else design my house because I think, as an architect, it would be a very interesting experience to be a client. (01:00:34)
Check out The Second Studio Podcast’s previous editions.
Reflecting on the past is often viewed as nostalgia or, from a more critical standpoint, as a sign of regression. However, looking back can offer valuable insights into a society that sometimes appears overly focused—if not obsessed—with the future and technology. In architecture, this reflection allows us to reconnect with our roots and appreciate the knowledge accumulated over generations. It invites us to explore how our ancestors designed durable structures adapted to their environment. Refined through centuries of observation, experimentation, and likely even errors, these systems demonstrate a profound understanding of local materials and building techniques.
Using simple yet effective tools, human skill in constructing these buildings demonstrates a remarkable ability to manipulate materials with precision and efficiency. The result is stable, functional structures that respond to the climate, landscape, and cultural and social needs of the community, while also providing aesthetic and symbolic value. By studying and valuing this constructive heritage, we preserve our history and draw lessons that can help address current and future challenges in new environments with sustainable solutions that harmonize with their context.
Despite facing historical challenges such as colonialism, collective oblivion, massive migrations, and global warming, these techniques have shown remarkable endurance. Within this scope, we will examine some of these materials and systems, each representing a unique combination of resilience and traditional knowledge. Hopefully, in 500 years, they will continue to inspire us and shape architectural concepts rooted in their ancestral heritage.
In Tiébélé, Burkina Faso, traditional construction techniques dating back to the 15th century reflect a blend of climate adaptation and local folklore. The village’s houses, known as Sukhala, are built from local materials such as earth, wood, straw, and cow dung, with thick 30 cm walls providing thermal insulation and protection. The construction process is a communal effort: men build the houses, while women apply decorative elements before the rainy season. These decorations not only protect the mud walls from erosion but also transform them into canvases adorned with fractal patterns and symbols.
The Painted Houses of Tiébélé. Image via Tumblr
Ruca Araucana: A Community-Built Structure in Southern Chile
The ruca araucana, typical of southern Chile, is a structure built using traditional techniques passed down through generations by the Mapuche community. This dwelling, constructed with local materials, is characterized by its cylindrical shape and conical roofs. The construction of a ruca is a collective effort involving all community members, who participate in an event known as Rucan. This collective process reinforces social bonds and preserves ancestral construction knowledge. The techniques employed, such as timber framing and reed cladding, demonstrate a deep understanding of the natural environment and local climatic conditions, ensuring the structure’s durability and functionality while preserving Mapuche cultural heritage.
Rucas . Image via Diario La Tercera
Mudhif: The Reed Houses of the Iraqi Marshes
Native to the Marshes of southern Iraq, Mudhifs exemplifies a rich cultural heritage and traditional craftsmanship passed down through practice, cultural activities, and oral history. Constructed by the Madan, —or Marsh Arabs—, these homes are made from natural materials such as straw, mud, and canes. The entire community contributes to their creation and maintenance, engaging in cane collection and weaving. The construction method, featuring columns and arches, allows for the swift assembly of large structures—some extending over 30 meters—in just a few days. Despite their fragile appearance, mudhifs are exceptionally durable, extending their lifetime through years.
Dorze Huts: Interwoven Bamboo Fibers from the Rift Valley
In the mountains of southern Ethiopia, the Dorze people have been perfecting bamboo weaving for centuries, a key element of their cultural heritage. This technique is used not only for building fences and baskets but also for constructing traditional huts. The process begins with splitting and flattening bamboo, which is then woven between vertical poles. As the structure is raised, bamboo rings are added and adjusted, and the construction is covered with thatch or sheaths, depending on available resources. These huts, which can reach over seven meters in height, naturally adapt to wear and tear from time and termites, requiring periodic maintenance of their tops and entrances.
Dorze Huts. Image Courtesy of Nomad Architecture
Ger: The Self-Supporting Tent of the Mongol Nomads
The Mongolian yurt, also known as a ger, is a traditional dwelling used in the steppes of Central Asia since the Middle Ages. Its circular, self-supporting design, which lacks a central pillar, reflects a sophisticated understanding of construction techniques suited to a nomadic lifestyle. The structure consists of interlocking wooden slats, called khana, covered with wool or leather, allowing it to be folded and transported. The roof features a ring that supports the beams, eliminating the need for a central pillar and making the central space available for cooking. In addition, the beams and support bands contribute to the structure’s stability, while an opening lid in the roof provides ventilation.
Mongolian Yurts. Image via Reuters
Tolek: Radial Structures of the Cameroonian Plains
The dwellings of the Musgum community, located on the northern border of Cameroon, are locally known as Tolek. Once thought to have disappeared due to foreign occupation and massive migrations, these structures feature radially arranged compressed earth domes—sometimes up to fifteen—tailored to specific family needs. They stand out for their sustainability, relying on local materials and avoiding unnecessary ornamentation. Built using traditional techniques that require no molds or formwork, these structures adapt to environments where wood and stone are scarce. The design prioritizes communal functionality, with geometric facades and textured walls that enhance drainage and air circulation.
Designed to withstand high humidity, extreme temperatures, and heavy rains, the traditional Mayan house, known locally as Xa’anil Naj, utilizes locally sourced materials like palm and wood. Its construction techniques enhance natural ventilation and wind resistance. A notable advantage of this design is the adoption of materials with low thermal mass, which efficiently blocks heat from penetrating the interior. This building tradition passed down through oral history, embodies a deep connection with nature and Mayan cosmology, inspired by a legend linking the house’s design to the divine creation of humanity and its relationship with the environment.
Harran’s Beehive Homes: Ancient Wisdom Encased in Mud
In the southern Turkish city of Harran, near the Syrian border, beehive-shaped houses are built from local materials such as adobe, brick, and stone, standing at heights of 4 to 5 meters. These structures outperform traditional tents while being built with equal speed. Their domed design shields the interior from the sun and features a low surface-to-volume ratio, minimizing heat loss during winter and providing effective insulation in summer. Side vents facilitate cross-ventilation for cold air intake, while an opening at the top of the dome functions as a chimney. Though these houses are landmarks in the region, their use as dwellings has gradually declined over the centuries due to the shift from a nomadic to a sedentary culture, and they are now primarily used as granaries.
Avoiding exoticism, embellishment, or excess, each of these ancestral construction techniques forms a substantial part of the collective knowledge of various regions, reflecting the fundamental aspects of the cultures that developed them. These techniques, with their deep community roots, reflected in collaborative construction processes, provide clear insight into how our ancestors understood their environment and how much has remained unchanged over the centuries. Ultimately, when local architecture is stripped of superficial gestures or foreign narratives, what endures are the essential human needs, social bonds, and cultural heritage.
